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Mass Violent Victimization and Natural Disasters Example
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Comparison of Mass Violent Victimization and Natural Disasters Mass Violent Victimization Natural Disasters Examples Mass riots
Hostage taking
Arson
Terrorist bomb
Mass shooting
Bioterrorism
Aircraft hijacking Hurricane
Earthquake
Tornado
Flood
Volcanic eruption
Wildfire
Drought Causation Include evil human intent, deliberate sociopolitical act, human cruelty, revenge, hate or bias against a group, mental illness. Is an act of nature; severity of impact may result from interaction between natural forces and human error or actions. Appraisal of Event Event seems incomprehensible, senseless.
Some view as uncontrollable and unpredictable, others view as preventable.
Social order has been violated. Expectations defined by disaster type.
Awe expressed about power and destruction of nature.
Disasters with warnings increase sense of predictability and controllability.
Recurring disasters pose ongoing threat. Psychological Impact Life threat, mass casualties, exposure to trauma, and prolonged recovery effort result in significant physical and emotional effects.
There are higher rates of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety and traumatic bereavement that can last for a longer period of time. Property loss and damage are primary impacts, so reactions relate to losses, relocation, financial stress, and daily hassles.
Disaster traumatic stress typically resolves over 18 months, with lower rates of diagnosable disorders unless high number of fatalities and serious injuries. Subjective Experience Victims are suddenly caught unaware in a dangerous, life-threatening situation. May experience terror, fear, horror, helplessness, and sense of betrayal and violation.
Resulting distrust, fear of people, or being “out in the world” may cause withdrawal and isolation.
Outrage, blaming the individual or group responsible, desire for revenge, and demand for justice are common. Separation from family members, evacuation, lack of warning, life threat, trauma, and loss of irreplaceable property and homes contribute to disaster stress reactions.
Anger and blame expressed toward agencies and individuals responsible for prevention, mitigation, and disaster relief. World View/Basic Assumptions Assumptions about humanity are shattered; individuals no longer feel that the world is secure, just, and orderly.
Survivors confronted with the reality that evil things can happen to good people.
People lose their illusion of invulnerability; anyone can be in the wrong place at the wrong time. Spiritual beliefs may be shaken (e.g., “How could God cause this destruction?”).
Loss of security in “terra firma” that the earth is “solid” and dependable.
People lose their illusion of invulnerability; anyone can be in the wrong place at the wrong time. Stigmatization of
Victims Some victims may come to feel humiliation, responsibility for others’ deaths, survivor guilt, self-blame, and unworthy of assistance, thus assigning stigma to themselves.
The larger community, associates, friends, and even family may distance themselves to avoid confronting the idea that crime victimization can happen to anyone.
Well-meaning loved ones may urge victims and bereaved to “move on,” causing them to feel rejected and wrong for continuing to suffer.
Hate crimes reinforce the discrimination and stigma that targeted groups already experience. Disasters tend to have greater impact on people with fewer economic resources due to living in lower-cost, structurally vulnerable residences in higher-risk areas.
Survivors from cultural, racial, and ethnic groups; single parent families; people with disabilities; and the elderly on fixed incomes experience greater barriers to recovery causing double jeopardy and potential stigma. Phases of Response and
Reconstruction Impact
Outcry
Disbelief, shock, and denial
Interaction with criminal justice system
Working-through process
Coming to terms with realities and losses
Reconstruction Warning, threat
Impact
Rescue and heroism
Honeymoon
Interaction with disaster relief and recovery
Disillusionment
Reconstruction Media The media shows more interest in events of greater horror and psychological impact.
Excessive and repeated media exposure puts people at risk for secondary traumatization.
Risk of violations of privacy. Short-term media interest fosters sense in community that “the rest of the world has moved on.”
Media coverage can result in violations of privacy; there is a need to protect children, victims, and families from traumatizing exposure. Secondary Injury Victims’ needs may conflict with necessary steps in the criminal justice process.
Bias-crime victims may suffer prejudice and blame.
Victims may feel that the remedy or punishment is inadequate in comparison to the crime and their losses. Disaster relief and assistance agencies and bureaucratic procedures can be seen as inefficient, fraught with hassles, impersonal.
Disillusionment can set in when the gap between losses, needs, and available resources is realized.
Victims rarely feel that they have been “made whole” through relief efforts. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, Mental Health Response to Mass Violence and Terrorism, 2004
Hostage taking
Arson
Terrorist bomb
Mass shooting
Bioterrorism
Aircraft hijacking Hurricane
Earthquake
Tornado
Flood
Volcanic eruption
Wildfire
Drought Causation Include evil human intent, deliberate sociopolitical act, human cruelty, revenge, hate or bias against a group, mental illness. Is an act of nature; severity of impact may result from interaction between natural forces and human error or actions. Appraisal of Event Event seems incomprehensible, senseless.
Some view as uncontrollable and unpredictable, others view as preventable.
Social order has been violated. Expectations defined by disaster type.
Awe expressed about power and destruction of nature.
Disasters with warnings increase sense of predictability and controllability.
Recurring disasters pose ongoing threat. Psychological Impact Life threat, mass casualties, exposure to trauma, and prolonged recovery effort result in significant physical and emotional effects.
There are higher rates of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety and traumatic bereavement that can last for a longer period of time. Property loss and damage are primary impacts, so reactions relate to losses, relocation, financial stress, and daily hassles.
Disaster traumatic stress typically resolves over 18 months, with lower rates of diagnosable disorders unless high number of fatalities and serious injuries. Subjective Experience Victims are suddenly caught unaware in a dangerous, life-threatening situation. May experience terror, fear, horror, helplessness, and sense of betrayal and violation.
Resulting distrust, fear of people, or being “out in the world” may cause withdrawal and isolation.
Outrage, blaming the individual or group responsible, desire for revenge, and demand for justice are common. Separation from family members, evacuation, lack of warning, life threat, trauma, and loss of irreplaceable property and homes contribute to disaster stress reactions.
Anger and blame expressed toward agencies and individuals responsible for prevention, mitigation, and disaster relief. World View/Basic Assumptions Assumptions about humanity are shattered; individuals no longer feel that the world is secure, just, and orderly.
Survivors confronted with the reality that evil things can happen to good people.
People lose their illusion of invulnerability; anyone can be in the wrong place at the wrong time. Spiritual beliefs may be shaken (e.g., “How could God cause this destruction?”).
Loss of security in “terra firma” that the earth is “solid” and dependable.
People lose their illusion of invulnerability; anyone can be in the wrong place at the wrong time. Stigmatization of
Victims Some victims may come to feel humiliation, responsibility for others’ deaths, survivor guilt, self-blame, and unworthy of assistance, thus assigning stigma to themselves.
The larger community, associates, friends, and even family may distance themselves to avoid confronting the idea that crime victimization can happen to anyone.
Well-meaning loved ones may urge victims and bereaved to “move on,” causing them to feel rejected and wrong for continuing to suffer.
Hate crimes reinforce the discrimination and stigma that targeted groups already experience. Disasters tend to have greater impact on people with fewer economic resources due to living in lower-cost, structurally vulnerable residences in higher-risk areas.
Survivors from cultural, racial, and ethnic groups; single parent families; people with disabilities; and the elderly on fixed incomes experience greater barriers to recovery causing double jeopardy and potential stigma. Phases of Response and
Reconstruction Impact
Outcry
Disbelief, shock, and denial
Interaction with criminal justice system
Working-through process
Coming to terms with realities and losses
Reconstruction Warning, threat
Impact
Rescue and heroism
Honeymoon
Interaction with disaster relief and recovery
Disillusionment
Reconstruction Media The media shows more interest in events of greater horror and psychological impact.
Excessive and repeated media exposure puts people at risk for secondary traumatization.
Risk of violations of privacy. Short-term media interest fosters sense in community that “the rest of the world has moved on.”
Media coverage can result in violations of privacy; there is a need to protect children, victims, and families from traumatizing exposure. Secondary Injury Victims’ needs may conflict with necessary steps in the criminal justice process.
Bias-crime victims may suffer prejudice and blame.
Victims may feel that the remedy or punishment is inadequate in comparison to the crime and their losses. Disaster relief and assistance agencies and bureaucratic procedures can be seen as inefficient, fraught with hassles, impersonal.
Disillusionment can set in when the gap between losses, needs, and available resources is realized.
Victims rarely feel that they have been “made whole” through relief efforts. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, Mental Health Response to Mass Violence and Terrorism, 2004